But for the best calligraphic results, as well as adding comfort and aesthetic joy to the whole process of writing, generations of scholars and officials have accumulated various "accessories" for their writing desks.
As Jeffrey Mindich explains in the following article, these served specific functional purposes, but also became works of art and collector's items themselves.
Since the Tang Dynasty, more than 1,000 years ago, the inkstick, inkstone, brush, and paper have been collectively known as "the four treasures of the scholar's study." Considered indispensable to the scholar and calligrapher, their quality has significant influence on the final excellence of any written work. An inferior writing brush, for example, can cause a calligrapher untold frustration as he is forced to pause in the creative process and remove loose brush tip hairs from the paper before him.
It therefore comes as little surprise that a poor scholar in traditional China often followed the dictate of "wear the old coat—buy the new brush," despite wintry blasts of frigid air sweeping off the northern plains. Better to have the best writing tools at hand and learn to clench the teeth against the cold.
But even with the best possible collection of the four treasures, the scholar—of the present as much as the past—requires other accessories before he can put brush to paper, for when he grinds the ink on the inkstone, he needs something to hold and measure the water used in the process. Moreover, how can he keep his paper from rolling up, or prevent it from being accidentally blown off the table? And when he wants to pause and contemplate the work before him, where does he put a brush full of wet, black ink?
These are not mere technicalities, and their resolution has guaranteed that the writing process will be smooth and uninterrupted. Calligraphers have gradually added a variety of accessories to their desktops as a support cast to the four treasures, including water droppers, paperweights, brush stands, ink screens, and even small stoves to be placed under the inkstone so the ink would not freeze during the bitter northern China winters.
The standards for the selection of these accessories are distinctly different from those used to choose the four treasures. The latter are purchased based strictly on quality. Surface aesthetics is wholly secondary. Mi Fei, acclaimed as one of the four master calligraphers of the Northern Sung Dynasty (960-1127), clearly reinforces this perspective in the Yen Pu, his well-known treatise on inkstones:
"The use for which an instrument is designed is of foremost importance. In this respect, when choosing a stone the primary consideration should be its ability to grind ink. The color of the stone is secondary, and of least importance is its shape and decoration. Although a stone may naturally be of attractive shape and pleasing color, it loses its function as an inkstone [if it does not grind the ink well]."
This analysis holds true for the other treasures of the study as well. Dragon-shaped inksticks and fancy brush handles fashioned from materials such as jade and ivory were made primarily to be appreciated and displayed by emperors or wealthy merchants; they were not used by the scholar class who relied on the practical employment of brush and ink for their living.
Despite their subordinate roles, the accessories to the four treasures have evolved into objects d'art that contribute substantially to the aesthetic atmosphere of the scholar's study. And since their practical functions are relatively easy to achieve, they have been crafted with greater attention given to artistic considerations. A brush stand, for example, only keeps the ink-soaked brush tip elevated above the surface of the table. Any flat piece of stone can actually serve the purpose, and would not in any way prove detrimental to the execution of a calligraphic work. Yet brush stands came to fulfill considerably more than a functional role as generations of Chinese craftsmen designed beautiful stands for the ink-laden brushes of calligraphers.
Like the brush stand, more than a dozen other accessories joined the four treasures, helping the scholar achieve calligraphic excellence in an atmosphere of aesthetic comfort. The most essential of these accessories, described below, could often be expensive acquisitions, and would be passed down through generations of family ownership. Jade, porcelain, ivory, precious metals, lacquerware, and cloisonné were just some of the materials used. Nevertheless, those items made from stone and bamboo often convey the most powerful aesthetic resonance.
Water Droppers and Water Pots
The grinding of ink on inkstone to the correct color and consistency is crucial to successful calligraphic writing. If the ink is too watery the color will appear as a muddy gray, and the ink will run on the paper and cause an undesirable watermark around the edge of the characters. But if the ink is ground too thick, its resin content will make it seem to stick to the brush, making it difficult for the calligrapher to execute graceful and uninhibited brush strokes.
Before grinding the inkstick, the calligrapher must add water to the surface of the inkstone. The amount of water depends upon how much ink is needed to complete the task at hand. It is considered best to grind all the ink for a calligraphic work at the start to avoid interrupting the flow of artistic creation, as well as ensure a uniform shading of black throughout the same piece.
There are numerous types of water droppers, almost all of which utilize the “drinking straw principle” to control carefully the amount of water released. In one style, the water dropper is filled through two small holes when the calligrapher submerges it in water. The flow of water onto the inkstone is controlled by the calligrapher covering and uncovering the anterior hole with his finger.
Water droppers are often made of porcelain (bronze is also popular) in a multitude of shapes. Fruits, vegetables, flowers, birds, fish, and even small figurines are favored themes. Some water droppers are shaped like small teapots, and the flow of water is controlled by covering the small hole on the lid of the teapot.
Water pots, unlike water droppers, are left stationary on the desk and a small spoon is used to ladle water onto the inkstone. Porcelain is also the most common material used for water pots, although cloisonné, stone, jade, and bronze are frequent selections as well.
Inkstick Stand
Once the calligrapher has finished grinding the ink, he must have some place to put the still-wet inkstick. The resin used in making inksticks has such substantial binding power that if the wet end of the inkstick were left to dry on the inkstone, it would stick fast to the surface. Attempts to remove it could actually damage the stone.
While it is common today simply to lean the inkstick against the side of the inkstone with the grinding end pointing upward, this leaves it in a vulnerable position, as it could be accidentally knocked off, staining the desk or even the calligraphic work itself.
The inkstick stand, in Chinese called mo chuang or "inkstick bed," provides a flat surface on which the inkstick can rest. Made sometimes of bronze, or a thin rectangle of porcelain held in a wooden base, the inkstick is laid across its surface with the wet end slightly protruding over the side. In this way the inkstick can dry slowly in the air, a process necessary before it can be stored for future use.
Inkstick Screens
The Sung Dynasty author Chao Hsi-ku included inkstone screens—along with inkstones, brush stands, water droppers, carved seals, famous works of calligraphy, antique paintings, antique lutes, ancient bronzes, and elegant natural stones—in his detailed work on connoisseurship, the Tung Tien Ching Lu Chi. Although these items are not strictly necessary for completing a work of calligraphy, all ten items could well be found in the study of a scholar of sufficient means. Even if scholars are unable to purchase antique bronzes or works by famous calligraphers, their studied appreciation of these items is considered a refined pursuit. Chao's inclusion of the inkstone screen in his book indicates its early position of importance.
Despite the relatively early introduction of the inkstone screen to the scholar's study, its actual purpose is obscure. It looks exactly like a miniature version of a one-section Chinese standing screen commonly used as a room divider in traditional Chinese homes. Some texts claim the purpose of the inkstone screen, normally placed directly behind the inkstone, is to prevent dust from landing on the inkstone and mixing with the ink. But this explanation is not satisfying, since it hardly seems that dust in the air would be obliging enough to approach the inkstone from only one direction.
With the exception of all-porcelain inkstone screens, which are molded and fired as one piece, most are crafted with an outer frame and an inner panel. Oftentimes, the frame is made of carved lacquer or of fine woods such as rosewood or purple sandalwood. Panels are made of various materials, including ivory or jade, which could be carved or engraved; blue and white or multicolored porcelains; and wood inlaid with mother-of-pearl or otherwise decorated. One of the more unusual types was molded from the same material used for making inksticks.
Paperweights
Traditional Chinese desks are of different design from those commonly used in the West. They are wider with considerably shallower depth, and are often just a working table top with no drawers. Moreover, they are sometimes taller than their Western counterparts, for calligraphers often work in a standing position. Because of the shallow depth of the desktop, a calligrapher who is working on a long calligraphic scroll often finds it necessary to hang the paper over the front side of the desk, moving it in stages as the work progresses.
Some scholar-officials of the past had a servant stand at the front of the desk and slowly move the paper forward as he finished each written section. But employing a servant was beyond the means of many scholars, forcing them to adjust the paper themselves. In such cases, the paper would be held in place by a paperweight. Because paper is sometimes stored by rolling it into a tube, use of a paperweight during writing was also necessary to prevent the paper from curling up in the midst of the task.
Bamboo is rarely used for paperweights because of its curved underside and light weight. The favored material is a slab of heavy wood, such as purple sandalwood, about a foot long, and two to three inches wide. This type covers a fair section of the paper and ensures that the paper will stay in place while the writing is in progress. While a piece of plain varnished purple sandalwood or rosewood is elegantly beautiful in its own right, it has always been common to have calligraphy, drawings, or other ornamental designs engraved on the surface of the wood.
Arm Rests
Chinese calligraphy has since earliest times been written from top to bottom and in rows from right to left. Except in the case of very large characters, the calligrapher usually needs to rest his arm for added support while writing. When writing small characters, especially those in close rows such as in a letter or official document, the calligrapher can easily smudge the previous row of characters if his hand rests directly on the paper.
The arm rest, which elevates the wrist above the level of the paper, neatly solves this problem while providing the necessary support as well. From its function, the arm rest became known as the wan chen or "wrist pillow."
Arm rests were almost always made of bamboo, for practical as well as aesthetic reasons. Normally about three and one half inches wide, and eight to ten inches long, an arm rest split vertically from a section of bamboo has the correct amount of natural curve to elevate the wrist comfortably without causing a feeling of awkwardness. Equally important, bamboo stays cool to the touch even during the hottest days. Jade has a similar coolness in summer, but would be icy to the touch in winter. The special affection scholars reserve for bamboo also makes it a preferred choice.
While the majority of the accessories to the four treasures are by anonymous artists, arm rests were carved and signed by some of China's most famous craftsmen, such as Chu San-sung of the late Ming Dynasty. Popular subjects carved in relief on the surface of arm rests include depictions of elegant court ladies, gatherings of scholars, nature scenes, or well-known poems. Arm rests so adorned remain highly admired by contemporary collectors for their refined beauty.
Brush Stands
For various reasons the calligrapher might pause in his writing, whether to lay aside one half of a couplet and spread out paper for the second half, to pause and contemplate what he had written so far, or to stamp his seal on a completed work. At these times the brush stand serves as a temporary resting place for a brush still wet with ink. It would be placed on the brush stand with the handle part just below the brush tip.
As a general rule, brush stands are made with an incline of about 30 to 40 degrees from the table top. Any steeper angle might cause the ink in the brush to run onto the handle; with a smaller angle the brush tip might accidentally come in contact with something else on the table. They can be made of practically any material, and in shapes such as dragons, fruits, flowers, reclining animals or even a reclining Taoist immortal. Sometimes items made for other uses were adapted as brush stands due to their own intrinsic aesthetic charm. Antique jade belt hooks, for example, occasionally served this purpose.
The most popular style of brush stand is in the shape of a group of mountain peaks. Five peaks was most common, representing the five sacred mountains of China. The "valleys" between the peaks provided a convenient resting place for the brush. Almost any material can be used for a brush stand of this type. Besides the more common porcelain, other materials commonly used include jade, coral, agate, crystal, cloisonné, bronze, and carved rhinoceros horn. But the choice favored by scholars, and considered to be the most refined selection, is one carved from an attractive stone. If made by the hands of a skilled craftsman, the peaks become a real mountain, just in miniature.
Brush Washers
A writing brush must be rinsed of all ink immediately after use; otherwise it will dry hard, which for a writing brush is fatal. Wang Hsi-chih (312-379) supposedly practiced calligraphy so diligently that he turned a small natural pool near his home black from rinsing his brushes in it—a feat later calligraphers could hardly match. Today, when a calligrapher has finished writing, he usually rinses his brush under the kitch en faucet.
Calligraphers of the past did not have such modern conveniences. Water was sometimes carried from considerable distances, then stored in large ceramic urns. Water was then taken from these larger storage containers and put into brush washers, which were shallow vessels several inches wide with inward-sloping sides. These were filled halfway with water and placed on the calligrapher's desk. Immediately after use, the writing brush was easily cleaned by swishing it around in the brush washer, because Chinese ink is easily soluble in water before it dries.
Among the numerous types of brush washers, the most common are made of porcelain and jade. Those of porcelain are about six inches in diameter, with a height of about an inch and a half. Brushes are normally held horizontally when cleaned, which not only prevents the tip from being damaged, but also allows a more effective back and forth method of cleaning. The sides of porcelain brush washers were sloped to create a lip, which prevented inky water from splashing out during the cleaning process. Brush washers of jade were often carved in the shape of lotus flowers or chrysanthemum leaves, the edges gently curling over, again to serve as a deterrent to ink-filled water splashing on the table top.
Ink Boxes
Inkstones must be promptly cleaned after use. Ink left sitting on an inkstone not only thickens, making it suitable only for poor calligraphy, but also if left to dry it can be difficult to wash off. Because traditional scholars and officials commonly wrote private and official documents throughout the course of a day's work, ink boxes came into use to overcome the inconvenience of stopping repeatedly to grind fresh ink.
The ink box is not much different from modern stamp pads. A thin wad of cotton batting is fitted into the bottom of the ink box and the freshly ground ink is then poured over it. A cover for the box prevents the ink from drying out or thickening. When the calligrapher is ready to write, he simply opens the cover and pulls his brush several times across the ink-soaked cotton.
Ink boxes were usually made of metal, including pewter, tin, or bronze, which was often plated. Poetry or artistic designs were usually etched on the cover of the box to give it more aesthetic appeal. One type of brush stand, made to complement the ink box, is made of bronze or porcelain. It has one or more openings into which the brush tip fits snugly, holding the brush vertically and preventing the tip from drying out even if not washed immediately after use.
Seal Stones
Carved seal stones, also known as chops, have a long tradition in China, with bronze versions first used more than 3,000 years ago. Seals were used then as now to certify official documents. Even today in China, a chop mark on a bank or personal check is considered proof of authenticity in lieu of a handwritten signature.
Scholars affixed their seals to calligraphic works as well, a custom that may extend back as far as the invention of paper in China. At any rate, no calligraphic work is considered complete without one or more seals stamped on its surface. These seals were not limited to the name of the calligrapher, but could also include the name of the scholar's study, such as the "Hall of Gathering Fragrance," or the "Studio of Ancient Mysteries." Still other seals were favorite sayings of the scholar, such as "to enjoy lofty conversation with disregard for poverty."
The calligrapher usually affixed his seal on the bottom left of a calligraphic work, just below his signature. It was also common to stamp one on the top right to "balance" the other. Collectors of a valuable calligraphic work sometimes placed their stamp on the work as well, normally having the good sense to place it in a spot not too conspicuous.
Scholars of the past often had several stamps, even a box full, which they used at different times according to their mood and preference. Jade, though costly, was not as expensive nor treasured as highly as was a good natural stone. Some stones, such as the royal yellow stone called tien huang, was truly worth its weight in gold. Also highly prized was the rare red-streaked stone called chi hsieh, or "chicken blood."
Although there have always been special craftsmen dedicated to carving seal stones, many scholars not only could carve their own, but also became well known for their skills. One modern example was the famous artist Chi Pai-shih (1862-1957).
Seal Ink Boxes
Almost without exception seals are stamped using red ink. Red traditionally represents good fortune in Chinese society, and it also provides pleasing contrast with black calligraphy on white paper.
The ink originally used for seals was somewhat costly, since it was made from the rare heavy mineral cinnabar, mixed with other base materials. After the Sung Dynasty, oil was also mixed in, giving a brighter color that did not fade over time. The cinnabar mixture looks like a large wad of red chewing gum. It is as sticky as it looks, thus is not used in the same way as a Western-styled ink pad. The seal is struck lightly against the cinnabar several times with short, choppy motions until the entire printing surface is covered with the ink.
Seal ink was prevented from drying out by placing it in a covered container, usually of porcelain. The elegant celadons of the Lungchuan kilns, or delicately painted blue and white ones from the Chingtechen kilns, are some of the most valued examples of delicate porcelain artwork used functionally as seal ink containers. These antique porcelains, as other finely crafted accessories to the "four treasures of the study," remain highly valued for their aesthetic charm. In addition, they illustrate the ability of Chinese craftsmen to solve common functional problems with artistic excellence.